Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms Essay Example for Free

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms EssayIn the 1940s, Ernst Mayr coined the term Biological Species Concept that was subsequently widely embraced by the scientific community. The definition verbalize that Species ar groups of actually or potentially interbreed natural populations that argon reproductively isolated from other much(prenominal) groups. Certain mechanisms are in place to block species from interbreeding with others and these are referred to as reproductive separate mechanisms, which are biological incompatibilities. There are many mechanisms acting on natural populations and these are more often than not grouped into two categories namely prezygotic and postzygotic mechanisms. Prezygotic isolating mechanisms are those mechanisms that isolate species before fertilisation i.e. before a zygote is formed. They include geographical, ecological, temporal, ethological, mechanical, morphological and gametic isolation. These mechanisms lesson the possibility of gametes from diametric species coming into contact and hence forming a zygote.One prezygotic isolating mechanism is ecological isolation, also referred to as habitat isolation. Ecological isolation prevents incompatible species that kick the bucket in the same territory exactly different habitats from interbreeding. These species are referred to as sympatric species since they emit in the same territories. Individuals mate in their preferred habitat, and thence do not meet individuals of other species with different ecological preferences. An example of ecological isolation occurs within the Rana genus. R. grylio, the pig salientian and R. areolata, the gopher catch both occur around New Orleans, Louisiana. The exceptionally aquatic pig frog lives in deep ponds, lakes and marshes amongst surfacing vegetation and breeds in deep urine so has no contact with the gopher frog which lives in burrows during the day, and in the swamp margins at night and breeds in shallow water. This way the possibility of interbreeding between the two species is eliminated.Temporal isolation, also known as seasonal isolation is a prezygotic mechanism that prevents interbreeding between species. Temporal isolation is the isolation of species by changing the time at which they release gametes.A particularly strong example of temporal isolation occurs in terce tropical orchid species of the genus Dendrobium. The species entirely flower for a single day, opening at dawn and withering by nightfall. The bloom of each species is in response to the same environmental stimuli, much(prenominal) as a sudden storm on a hot day, but the lag time between the occurrence of the stimulus and the flowering is eight, nine, and ten or eleven in the different species.Since they flower for a single day, inter-species fertilization is made impossible because when one species has flowered the others are every not yet mature or already withered. Other examples of temporal isolation in natural populati ons are not as pronounced such as in cases were species are isolated out-of-pocket to breeding during different seasons like Sciurus carolinensis, the gray squirrel which mates in July and August and Sc. niger, the fox squirrel which breeds in May and June.Another prezygotic isolating mechanism is ethological isolation or behavioural isolation. This mechanism prevents species, mostly animals from interbreeding based on their different behavioural patterns. It affects animals that occur within the same territory and habitat but with different trade union behaviours. In most animals, mates are chosen in a species-specific burn down often after species-specific mating rituals of some form. Matings follow these rituals which can be ended if at least one of the mating parties decides that the process leading to the mating is not as expected. Ethological isolation can be strong reproductive isolating mechanism in animals also between closely related species.An rough-and-ready example of ethological isolation occurs in certain frog species of the Hyla species. H. versicolor, the gray tree frog and the closely related H. femoralis, pine wood tree frog often breed in the same ponds. Both species are physically very similar but their male mating calls, which last about three seconds and sound the same to humans can be differentiated by the female person tree frogs and thus insures species-specific mating. This is also the case when considering why dogs and wolves dont mate as frequently as expected because of their different behavioural patterns.Mechanical isolation is a mechanism that prevents copulation between different animal species because of incompatible inning and size of thegenitalia. This occurs in species are sympatric and live in a common habitat and have overlapping breeding seasons without any ethological isolating mechanisms. In plants, variation in flower structure can inhibit cross species pollination. In California, two sage species, namely Salvia mellifera and S. apiana exhibit this form of prezygotic isolation. Two- thick-lipped S. mellifera has stamens and style in their upper lip, whereas S. apiana has long stamens and style and a specialized floral configuration. Small and medium sized bees that carry pollen on their backs pollinate the two-lipped flowers, and braggart(a) carpenter and bumble bees that carry pollen on their wings and other body parts pollinate S. apiana. This mechanism thus ensures that pollen cannot be transferred between the species, as only the corresponding pollinators are able to transfer pollen to the style of each flower.Another prezygotic isolation mechanism is morphological isolation, which in some cases overlaps with mechanical isolation mechanisms. This isolating mechanism prevents mating due to differences in size and shape between species. Morphological isolation prevents the spread of genes between the oak toad, Bufo quercicus and the Gulf Coast toad, Bufo vallicpes due to the size varia tion between the two species. The female oak toad has a maximum length of approximately 3 centimetres whereas the smallest Gulf Coast males are about twice as long. This way the size differences between the spaces make copulation extremely unlikely as male oak toads are also small to grasp the female Gulf Coast toad and male Gulf Coast toads are large enough to, and by and large do, eat the female oak toads.The last prezygotic isolating mechanism is gametic isolation also known as gametic mortality. Gametic isolation is the mechanism in which fertilization cannot occur between species generally due to chemical incompatibilities between their gametes. In animals that practice internal fertilization, sperm may not be able to survive in the females sperm receptacles. or so plant species, pollen grains of one species usually cannot germinate on the stigma of another species thus preventing fertilization between species. Since many aquatic animals disperse their ova and sperm into the water, gametesof different species do not have affinities for each other. This wasdemonstrated between the sea urchins Stronglocentrotus purpuratus and S. franciscanus when after induction of simultaneous realease of testicle and sperm, all resultant fertilizations were between eggs and sperms of the same species.Postzygotic isolation mechanisms are those reproductive isolating mechanisms, which are effective after the union of gametes of different species i.e. after fertilisation. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms include interbreeding inviability, hybrid sterility and hybrid breakdown. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms reduce the viability or fertility of hybrids or their progeny. These mechanisms come into play when hybridzygotes are formed either naturally or unnaturally. loanblend inviability is the postzygotic isolating mechanism that occurs between fertilisation and birth. This mechanism prevents the full development of zygotes and thus leads to their subsequent death. An ex ample in animals is the death of artificially created sheep-goat hybrid embryos in early developmental stages before birth. Hybrid inviability also occurs in plants, most commonly resulting in hybrid seeds either failing to germinate or end shortly after germination.Hybrid sterility or hybrid infertility is a postzygotic reproductive isolating mechanism which affects hybrids that survive to adulthood. This mechanism creates sterile hybrids i.e. hybrids that cannot urinate offspring. The most well known example is the case of the mule. When a horse and a donkey mate they are capable of producing offspring called mules. But mules are sterile, leaving them out of the gene pool thus maintaining species integrity.Hybrid breakdown is the last postzygotic isolating mechanism in place to maintain species differentiation. It occurs in cases of breed were hybrids of inter species matings are viable and fertile. Hybrid breakdown occurs commonly and results in the hybrids offspring or the F2 generation being unviable or significantly weaker and unable to institute genes to a next generation. Certain cotton plants show this form of reproductiveisolation such as Gossypium barbadense, G. hirsutum and G. tomentosum which produce hybrids that seem viable and fertile, but their offspring die either as seeds, early during development or develop into weaker plants unable to compete and reproduce.Reproductive isolation combines traits that reduce gene flow, such as mate choice or fertilization barriers, with traits that select against genes that have flowed, such as hybrid incompatibility. Reproductive isolating mechanisms are ultimately mechanisms evolved in species to prevent interbreeding with other species and thus allow for scientists to differentiate between species using the biological species concept.BibliographyFutuyma, DJ. 1998. Evolutionary biology, 3rd ed., Sinauer Assoc. Inc., USAGriffiths, A.J.F., Miller, J.H. Suzuki, D.T., Lewontin, R.C. and Gelbart, W.M. 1999. Introduction to Genetic Analysis. W.H freewoman Co. New York.Hale, W. and Margham, J. 1988. Collins Dictionary of Biology. Collins, UK.Mayr, E. 1942 Systematics and the Origin of Species. Columbia University Press, New York, USA.Mayr, E. (1970) Populations, Species, and Evolution. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.Starr, C. and Taggart, R. (2001). Biology, The Unity and Diversity of Life, 9th ed. Brookes/ Cole, USA.www.abacus.gene.ucl.ac.uk/jim/Sp/isolmech.htmlwww.library.thinkquest.org/ 19926/java/library/article/17a.ht

What Is Meant by the Term Organisational Culture Essay Example for Free

What Is Meant by the Term Organisational Culture EssayThe late twentieth century saw an emergence in industry competition and in order to continually achieve success, schemeal behavior had to evolve into something new. Organisational farming is one form of organisational behavior that is focused on the divided up values and beliefs which members and employees of a specific organisation believe to be the right way to act in a particular situation (Vecchio, 2000). Just alike(p) other theories of organisational behavior, the purpose of culture speculation is to gain knowledge of employee attitudes so that organisations ignore reduce cost and improve return (Stanford, 2010). The aim of this essay is to hand over the rise of culture belief in organisations, and why it can play an important role in organisational performance. First it testament provide a explanation of the literature, then present assorted concepts that can be seen, such as has and is scheme squ ar and wea k cultures. Finally it entrust identify positive effectuate it can micturate on organisations and employees.The rise of Humanistic theoriesFrom the 1920s to the early 1970s Scientific Management was widely adopted by Western companies because it was an leisurely structure to tool by managers in an organisation to achieve success and suppress over employees (Burnes, 1996). However with the oil crises in 1973 interest in the Japanese model of production spread to the World (Brown and Williams, 2012). This happened because the Japanese were achieving what no other organisation had ever achieved in addition they were contradicting every previous concept of production (Vecchio, 2000). When organisations around the World were practicing mass production, the Japanese were developing the just-in-time approach. This is when the raw material would only be ordered just-in-time to be produced, and production would only start just-in-time to be delivered to the costumer, avoiding waste and contributing towards a more effective cash flow additionally they were practicing team work (Brown and Williams, 2012).Employees were involved in decision making and projects would be interconnected at different aims from the marketing and finance department to the shop floor (Vecchio, 2000). This reduced alienation and empowered employees, the results were considerable and were seen as a miracle by Western organisations. Therefore, as a response to the Japaneses new challenging approach, western organisations began to explore different models of behavior (Burnes, 1996). That is when the theories that were more humanistic (Human Resource Management, Culture theory and Contingency approach) were rediscovered and adopted. In 1982 Peters and boater (1982) suggested that the key to the recovery of Western companies was the implementation of organisational culture. In their study they analysed several different organisations from the USA and identified a tend of eight common beliefs that according to them were the reasons for their success (Mullins, 2011).Thus, if a familiarity wishes to achieve excellence they should embrace those beliefs. Customer orientation, respectful treatment beyond different level of employees and a set of values through a clear organisation philosophy were a few of those common attributes (Burnes, 1996). They argue that when employees have organisational values integrated within their actions, there is no postulate for close supervision, reducing organisation cost and empowering employees (ibid). Therefore, managers should adopt a system where employees have more freedom, nevertheless managers would notwithstanding have some kind of control (Brewis and Willmott, 2012). It was this study in the 80s that made famous among managers culture theory as a chemical formula for success (ibid). Peter and Waterman sent their message to the world as the one best way to be successful.Concepts of CultureMost writers (including Peter and Waterma n cited above) that are concerned with culture theory believe that managers can implement and manipulate culture in order to improve organisational success (Brewis and Willmott, 2012). This assumption that culture is a variable and can be changed is explained by Smircich (1983) as culture being something that an organisation has. For instance, managers could build a value into an organisation and its employee, such as, guest satisfaction and team work to increase productivity. match to Brewis and Willmott (2012) in the has theory, culture can be seen as functional and technical. It is functional because it establishes an order in an organisation, it will lead all employees in the same direction. Additionally work is meaningful to them, which may be seen as empowerment. It is technical because managers can continually administrate center of attention values of a company to achieve better outcome (Brewis and Willmott, 2012). Indeed that may be the reason why the subject is so popul ar now it is connected with better performance.Has theory can also be associated with backbreaking culture. Deal and Kennedy (1982) believe that in order to achieve success an organisation should implement a clear and consistent set of values, which enable employees to assume how to behave as the way to do things here. If employees line up for the company, if it touches them in some way, they will view its leaders anywhere because they value, even idolize, everything it stands for (Linstead, 2012, p.197). This approach is supposed to increase employee loyalty and to trigger strong emotions, such as, aspiration, devotion and love (Linstead, 2012). However it is also argued that strong culture may lead to a predictable staff outcome, discouraging new ideas (Brewis and Willmott, 2012). Nevertheless, a considerable number of managers confirm that the structure that culture provides to an organisation has a direct link with its prosperity (Mullins, 2011). On the other hand, some writ ers view culture as something an organisation is (Smircich, 1983).It is suggested that just like in bearing where universe develop a behavior that it is a result of their local surrounding, in organisations employees too develop a behavior on a daily bases (Brewis and Willmott 2012). It is created organically and difficult to understand where the roots of it came from, hence hard to manage and change (Stanford, 2010). Is theory sympathises with what literature calls a weak culture. Here the subject is inured more flexible, giving more room for scope, and creativity (Linstead, 2012). It is a debate whether an organisation should adopt strong or weak cultural values strong cultures may be inflexible and as consequence can react slower to external and internal changes (Stanford, 2010).The link between culture and empowermentAccording to Stanford (2010) an effective culture would be when employees believe that there are more reasons to work than to just make money, when work is mean ingful to them. In addition she believes that the employee should feel engaged within the job, without breaching ethical issues (Stanford, 2010). It should be noted that organisational culture enable human resource management to affiliate organisational values with new employee values, and when both percent common beliefs the results can be beneficial for either side. Employees feel fulfillment and managers benefit from this in terms of a more efficient production (Vecchio, 2000). This suggests that managers are paying attention to organisational culture because it empowers employees and as a result boosts productivity.Therefore it can be argued that culture theory seems to achieve what a range of studies have tried to understand for decades, that is how to reward and empower individuals at work in order to improve organisational performance. Hawthornes study in the 1920s draws attention to the fact that humans are not only driven by monetary incentives as stated by Taylor, instead it shows that there is a desire for recognition (Linstead, 2012). Employees essential to feel that they are being valued. However at the time it did not demonstrate clear enough how to measure these concepts in organisational practice (Burnes, 1996). Culture theory developed those assumptions in more detail, making it easier for managers to manipulate and implement.Certainly the approaches created by culture theory reaffirm what numerous studies such as Job design, system Y and Maslow already said, however it appears that it glued several ideas from those studies into a clear module for organisation practices. In spite of that, culture theory has been criticised to manipulate and control employees in a way that could be seen as unethical (Linstead, 2012). It should be noted that there is an element of control just like in life, organisations need a mechanism for social order. For Marxists, organisation culture tries to control employees emotions and that is a form of exploitation and inevitably will lead to alienation (ibid). Nevertheless, it can be argued that most employees dont feel controlled, and they actually approve of the methodology (ibid).ConclusionOrganisation behavior has developed from Scientific Management into a wide school of thoughts, and it will continue to evolve in response to challenging business environments. This essay has given reasons for the widespread use of organisation culture since 1982. It has demonstrated through different concepts why managers are attracted to the topic and it can be concluded that what provokes managers interest is the idea that culture is something an organisation has.In this approach, culture can be manipulated to integrate all employees toward the same direction and achieve organisational goals. In addition it can be assumed that when employee values are aligned with company values it results in better organisation performance. For that reason, it is suggested that there is a link between organisation pe rformance and employee empowerment. Culture is seen as the commodity that holds an organisation together. It seems then, that culture, disdain its criticism, will probably continue to develop as the demand for it endures on.ReferencesBrewis, J. and Willmott, H. Culture. In Knights, D. and Willmott, H. eds. (2012) Introducing Organizational Behaviour and Management. 2th ed. Andover Cengage Learning.Brown, G. and Hookham Williams, C. (2013) ULMS151 Organisations and Management Custom Text. Houndsmills Palgrave Macmillan.Burnes, B. (1996) Managing Change A Strategic cuddle to Organisational Dynamics. 2th ed. London Pitman Publishing.Deal, T.E. and Kennedy, A.A. (1982) Corporate Cultures The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life. Reading, MA Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.Linstead, S. Managing Culture. In Worthington, F. ed. (2013) ULMS157 Introdution to HRM Custom Text. Houndsmills Palgrave Macmillan.Mullins, L.J. (2011) Essentials of Organisational Behaviour. 3th ed. Harlow FT/ Prentice Hall.Peters, T.J. and Waterman, R.H. (1982) In Search of Excellence Lessons from Americas Best run Companies. New York Harper.Smircich, L. (1983) Concepts of Culture and Organizational Analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28(3), 339-358.Stanford, N. (2010) Organisation Culture Getting it right. London Profile Books.Vecchio, R.P. (2000) Organizational Behavior core group concepts. 4th ed. Fort Worth Dryden Press.

Concepts and Definitions of Mental Illness

Concepts and Definitions of Mental IllnessINTRODUCTIONThe conceptualisation and definition of what is meant by the term mental unwellness is not a forthwith forward task. This is be face of two key reasons. Firstly, a disposed(p) definition of mental sickness get out be bulls eyeifi enduretly affected by the specific characteristics of the source of the definition. For cause, a member of the worldwide public would be likely to provide a definition which is signifi senstly various from a person who worked indoors the pro launch profession. The perceptions of the member of the general public argon likely to arouse been influenced by factors such as the media and their experiences involving state who ar viewed as being mentally ill. In contrast, the legal profession would be influenced by the guidelines and recommendations set out by law (e.g. the Mental Health Act 1983 and subsequent amendments). The definition employ at heart the health c atomic number 18 profession is likely to differ again from these choice approach shotes Such differences are likely to exist indoors these categories. For ideal, the definition used by a Psychiatrist whitethorn not be the same as that which is used by a General Practitioner. Therefore, whenever one is discussing what is meant by mental illness, it is important to note the of import impact which is made by the sentiments and experiences of those providing the definition. For the purposes of the following raillery, the definitions which are employed within the health care industry go forth be predominantly focused upon plainly references will be made to the perceptions of other germane(predicate) groups.The second reason why the definition of mental illness is not a simple one is because of the wide range of incompatible symptoms, demeanours and personal characteristics which whitethorn be perceived as signs of mental illness. A person may be perceived as mentally ill if they claim to take heed voices , experience prolonged episodes of depression, are habituated to drugs or even because they are extremely scared of spiders. These wide range of symptoms reassure that it is punishing to derive a definition of mental illness which encompasses all of the relevant aspects and issues. In terms of behaviours, a person who is going through a period of extreme optimism may be viewed as being a in truth positive person by some and as experiencing a manic episode by others. Therefore, it is difficult to clearly define the boundaries as to when behaviour belongs into the realm of being a sign of mental illness. Finally, the personal characteristics of the person being observed are likely to influence whether or not they are perceived as being mentally ill. For vitrine, a young person who is forgetful may be viewed as simply having a poor keeping. However, if an elderly person was to perform the same episodes of memory loss, they may be more likely to be viewed as holding from the ea rly signs of Alzheimers Disease. Therefore, the definition of mental illness is made more difficult by the range of applicable symptoms, the problems associated with clearly defining boundaries and the heart of the personal characteristics of the person being observed. The following review will discuss these relevant issues and high spot the key elements of the debate regarding What is Mental Illness?THE CONCEPT OF MENTAL ILLNESSThis section will consider the statistical approach to mental illness on with the importance of affable desir great power. The roles contend by cultural and societal factors in determining what is label take as mental illness will then be discussed. Finally a theoretical definition of what is meant by mental illness will be provided.2.1 THE STATISTICAL APPROACH TO MENTAL ILLNESSThe more traditionalisticistic approach to mental illness was found on the concept of how rare a give persons characteristics, thoughts and behaviours were viewed as being. S omebody who is acting very antithetically and in a way which is rarely seen, had the potential to being perceived as mentally ill. For example, the extreme behaviour and actions performed by Adolf Hitler would fall legion(predicate) to claim that he was insane However, This statistical approach to mental illness can be criticised in two ways. Firstly, the extreme behaviours of somebody like Picasso are viewed as talent and aptitude rather than as being a sign of mental illness. Rarity, it could be argued, is only relevant when it is combined with behaviour which is socially undesirable. The statistical approach can be criticised in a second way. There are certain categories of mental illness which are not that rare. For example, a earthshaking number of people in the world suffer with depression. One could not argue that depression is not a mental illness entirely based on the theory that there are too many people suffering with it. Thus the traditional statistical approach wa s shown to not be a comprehensive and appropriate conceptualisation of mental illness.2.2 CULTURAL AND SOCIETAL FACTORS IN MENTAL ILLNESSSubsequent approaches to mental illness sacrifice focussed on the concept of deviance (Maher 1966). This highlights the key role which is played by cultural and societal factors in determining what is labelled as mental illness. The vitrine of homoity provides a good demonstration of this head. In previous centuries, performing homo knowledgeable acts was seen as a sign of mental illness by twain society and the mental health profession. However, over subsequent years homosexuality has become a more accepted form of sexual behaviour. Although some people would still view it as a mental illness, a societal shift appears to have taken place relative to the historical treatment of homosexual people. Heather (1976) argues that there is a moral aspect to mental illness as well as the underlying medical condition. The case of homosexuality outlines this point of view and shows that the concept of mental illness is not a fixed one but rather has the capability to change over time.Szasz (1962) also back up this view and argued that mental illness is as real as witch craft was in the past. It is the way in which society perceives mental illness which has a significant impact on what is actually labelled as mental illness. Other cultural aspects have a deviate to play. Cultural norms regarding a slur are important. For instance, undressing is an acceptable behaviour if one is just about to have a shower However, if one was to undress in the middle of the high route then it would not be seen as acceptable. Similarly there are developmental norms within given cultures. Temper tantrums are expected when a babe is around two years of age. However, if the same behaviour was performed by a 30 year old then it is likely that this would be seen as unsatisfactory and potentially viewed as a sign of mental illness. This section has s hown that cultural and societal factors have an important influence on what is seen as mental illness. A given behaviour in one community may be acceptable but the exact same behaviour in a different community may be seen as a sign of mental illness.2.3 DEFINING MENTAL ILLNESSJohodas (1958) Framework of mental illness will be outlined here as well as the importance of distress and consequences.CATEGORIES OF MENTAL ILLNESSThis section of the review will outline terzetto of the more prevalent categories of mental illness. This discussion will enable a more comprehensive understanding of what is meant by mental illness. Within each category, an example of a mental illness will be provided as a further illustration. The first category is Psychosis. A definition of psychosis will be given and the case of schizophrenic psychosis will be discussed as an example. The second broad category to be considered is Substance Abuse.. The case of people being addicted to unpaid drugs will be prov ided as a modern example. The third and final category is Depression. bipolar deflect will be discussed as another example of mental illness. For each of these examples, both the causes and different treatments will be briefly outlined.3.1 PSYCHOSISThe first category of mental illness to be covered in this discussion is Psychosis. The term psychosis has been defined as a range of symptoms that can be found within the diagnostic categories of Schizophreniform illness1 (Gregory 1987). A variety of different experiences can be described as psycho symptoms. They can be viewed as highly convoluted expressions of everyday experiences (Beck Rector 2000). They take auditory hallucinations (e.g. the tolerant may hear a voice instructing them to perform certain behaviours), disturbing thoughts (e.g. the patient may become paranoid that they are being targeted by someone) or a deplorable inability to distinguish what is reality. Combinations of these psychotic symptoms are associated wit h different forms of psychosis, including both Acute and Chronic Schizophrenia. The mental illness which is labelled as Schizophrenia will now be outlined in more detail. The symptoms associated with this illness will be outlined along with the different possible causes and treatments.3.1.1 SCHIZOPHRENIAThe term Schizophrenia was first used by Bleuler (1911). It was intended to mean Split Mind or Divided Self. Clare (1976) stated that a person can be said to be suffering from Schizophrenia if they have at least one of the first rank symptoms, outlined below, and do not suffer from a diagnosed brain disease. The First Rank Schizophrenic symptoms were outlined by Schneider (1959). They arePassivity experiences and thought disturbancesAuditory hallucinations in the third personPrimary delusions or false beliefsThe potential consequences for a person suffering with Schizophrenia are both serious and wide ranging. One of the most significant problems can be social exclusion. This has the potential to cause great distress on the part of the patient and may lead to a relapse and or increase in their psychotic symptoms. Therefore it is an important issue to consider and one which needs to be carefully turn to by the mental health nurse.3.1.2 CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA discipline regarding the different causes of Schizophrenia will be added here.3.1.3 TREATMENTSMany different approaches to the treatment of Schizophrenia and psychotic symptoms have been taken over the past fifty years. These have ranged from Neuroleptic medication and Electro-Convulsive Therapy through to hearty Support and Family Therapy. The 1960s witnessed the introduction of Phenothiazine as a medication for treating psychotic symptoms (Fenton 2000). Subsequent explore evaluating a purely drug-BASED approached suggested that it may be somewhat limited. For example, research has revealed that between 25 and 50% of patients ON medication still experience persistent psychotic symptoms (Garety et al 200 0). Furthermore, even when the patients strictly adhere to their medication regime, they still can experience difficulties (Hogarty Ulrich 1998). Other research has supported the view that patients suffering from psychotic symptoms who are on medication still experience residual symptoms as well as social disabilities such as having difficulty with interpersonal skills (Sandford Gournay 1996). Such social disabilities can negatively effect the patients ability to socially interact and to form relationships. This in turn may help to reinforce the stereotypes that people have regarding the mentally ill and hence contribute to the stigmatisation which they have to suffer.Other alternative and supplementary approaches to the treatment of psychotic symptoms have been offered. For instance, based upon Social tuition Theory, Social Skills Training was developed. This involves training and re-training the motor and interpersonal skills of the patient. However, evaluations of this approac h have suggested that any positive effects were short term and that rather than dealing with the psychotic symptoms Social Skills Training merely allows the patient to disguise them and to avoid talking about them (Bradshaw 1995). It may be the case that such training needs to be provided via the mental health nurse and this could be one way in which they could help a patient who is suffering from Schizophrenia. Other treatments based on a psychodynamic approach have also been tested and evaluated in terms of their effectiveness and efficacy for the treatment of psychotic symptoms. It was found that there was no significant effect (Malmberg Fenton 2002). However, other similar research suggested that approaches which emphasise problem-solving seem to be more effective than those which simply focused on analysis (Fenton 2000). Such findings have led people to advocate the psychological management of psychotic symptoms whilst also emphasising the possible role that could be played by the mental health nurse in call offing problems which are not effectively overcome by the treatments which are presently given for Schizophrenia.3.2 SUBSTANCE ABUSEAnother major area of mental illness concerns colony. It has been included here as it is not generally perceived as being a mental illness by the public although it is included within the DSM-IV classification framework. Humans can become addicted to a wide range of different stimuli from gambling and sexual behaviour through to drugs and alcohol consumption. As a result of the prevalence of such dependances, and the potentially serious consequences for the sufferer, the topic of addiction has attracted a considerable amount of research projects and theories from a variety of different theoretical perspectives. The case of people being addicted to recreational drugs will now be provided as an example which is of particular relevant to the modern debates within this field.3.2.1 ADDICTION TO RECREATIONAL DRUG USEThe sys tem within the brain which is activated by the consumption of water and food, as well as during sexual activity, can also respond to the taking of drugs. This is associated with an increase in the release of dopamine from the nucleus accumbens within the brain. This effect has been seen with amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, PCP, opiates and cannabis. Recreational drugs are primarily taken by exclusives because of the feelings of euphoria, alterations in sensory perception or to experience an increase in their perceived mental or physical abilities. The issue of recreational drug use has seen a significant amount of coverage within the UK media over the last decade. Through a combination of the prevalence of recreational drug use, the report of drug-related deaths and the Governments deliberations over the relevant legal considerations, a growing interest in the topic has been stilld. The Government and researchers in the field are operative to gain an understanding of the drugs which are being used, who is using them, how addictive behaviour can develop and what interventions can be taken in order to ensure the safety of those at risk. investigate has been apportioned which has attempted to quantify the goal to which recreational drugs are used within the United Kingdom. For instance, Wadsworth et al (2004a) conducted a postal evaluate which revealed that 12% of the respondents had taken elicit recreational drugs within the last year and 7% had done so within the last month. For respondents under the age of 25, it was found that 34% reported having taken recreational drugs in the last year and 19% in the last month. It appears that these figures are increasing and that they have been increasing for a number of years. Bauman Phongsavan (1999) performed a review of the epidemiology of drug use and found that it had been steadily increasing since 1990. They also note, however, that it is difficult to collect accurate data regarding the true extent of recr eational drug use as people may be reluctant to admit using drugs and to report the amount that they usually take.3.22 CAUSES OF ADDICTIONAn addiction involves a person having a compulsion to take a given centerfield or perform a specific behaviour. They also have an inability, or find it very difficult to limit their in-take of the substance or to control their performance of the given behaviour. Explanations for the development of an addiction have been proposed from a number of different theoretical perspectives. Some of the more prominent approaches will now be outlined.The biological approach, often cited as the disease model, suggests that a person has a pre-disposition to becoming addicted to a specific stimuli. This does not necessarily mean that they will become addicted, just that they are vulnerable to it and that the onset of any addiction may kick the bucket more easily or rapidly. The Genetic approach suggests that people may inherit addictions from their parents thr ough their genetic make-up. Therefore, the nestlingren of a person who is addicted to a specific stimuli are said to be more vulnerable to becoming addicted to that stimuli than would normally be expected. The Sociological perspective emphasises the role played by societal factors in the development of addictions among its members. For instance, within a society which creates a stressful environment, high levels of conflict and which allows significant advertising of products to which people may become addicted, more people with addictions may exist relative to another less stressful society with lower levels of conflict and advertising. Other explanations have been offered which are fundamentally based on psychological principles. It is these approaches which are being proposed as most appropriate for understanding recreational drug addiction.This approach is fundamentally based on the assumption that human behaviour is learned. Such learning is said to be shaped by positive and n egative reinforcements which are associated with performing the behaviour. A negative reinforcement may come in the form of information regarding recreational drugs. Such information may be provided by family members, a friend, the media or through the education system. Through emphasising the potential health-related consequences of recreational drug use, the likelihood of an individual taking recreational drugs should be castrated. Negative reinforcement could also occur through an individual experiencing or witnessing an unpleasant event regarding drugs and involving themselves or their friends.Positive reinforcement regarding recreational drug taking could also be provided by an individuals friends. It could also occur through witnessing other people taking recreational drugs and focussing on the positive consequences of such behaviour. Perhaps the most sizeable positive reinforcement, however, occurs when an individual takes recreational drugs and experiences positive feeling s as a result. These positive feelings are likely to go beyond the actual physical reaction to include potential factors such as the individuals acceptance into a social group or scene and a significant rise in their reputation. All of these positive reinforcements are likely to combine, to varying degrees, to encourage the individual to repeat the recreational drug taking behaviour in the future. The addiction can begin when they become tolerant to such positive feelings. This psychopharmacological approach suggests that this tolerance takes two forms.Firstly, the individual can become Contingency Tolerant This relates to their behaviour after the stimuli and it is this which they become tolerant of rather than the stimuli itself. Therefore, to continue with the recreational drug-taking example, the individual may become tolerant of the positive feeling experienced when taking a drug and hence they go in search of a larger effect by taking more of the same drug or by experimenting with other substances. The second form of tolerance is Conditioned Tolerance This relates to the environment in which the behaviour is performed. The drug taker may experience a positive resolution when they walk into a night club or to a friends house where drugs are usually taken. It is suggested that the individual with the addiction can become conditioned to devour the given substance or performing the specific behaviour when in a given environment or situation.3.3 MOOD DISORDERSThe two major conditions which are included within this category of mental illness are Depression and bipolar malady. They are both amongst the more common forms of mental illness. As an example of this kind of mental illness, the case of Bipolar Disorder will now be outlined in more detail.3.3.1 BIPOLAR DISORDERBipolar Disorder is a form of psychotic illness which involves the patient experiencing episodes of mania and depression. The periods of mania may involve the patient being in extremely high enliven and exhibiting high levels of optimism. In contrast, depression may witness the patient feeling very low and even suicidal. These extreme moods will be separated by times in which the patient is in a normal mood. This cyclical pattern of moods can become more rapid over time (Goodwin Jamison 1990). A distinction can be drawn between two forms of the disorder. Bipolar Disorder 1 is the classic form in which the patient experiences recurrent episodes of mania and depression. Bipolar Disorder 2 involves milder episodes of hypomania and depression. If the patient is witnessed to go through four or more episodes in a year then they can be categorised as suffering from Rapid Cycling Bipolar Disorder.It has been estimated that around 1% of people who are over the age of 18 can suffer with Bipolar Disorder in any one year (Regier et al 1993). As a result of the prevalence of this illness, combined with the potential for it leading to felo-de-se (Brent et al 1993), research has be en conducted in order to gain an understanding of the causes and the most effective treatments for Bipolar Disorder. This field of investigation has attracted theorists and researchers from a psychological and sociological perspective. This move has been facilitated by the findings of research which has demonstrated that the traditional approach of medication may not address all of the relevant issues. For example, Ameen Ram (2001) suggest that only 60% of patients respond to Lithium and other Anti-Convulsion medication. Furthermore, they also suggest that just 40% of sufferers remain without relapse for three years after initial treatment patronage adhering to their medication regime. Such statistics have served to highlight the potential role that could be played by people working from a psychological and/or sociological perspective. The following discussion will now consider and critically review these perspectives with reference to the causes and then the treatment of Bipolar D isorder.3.3.2 CAUSES OF BIPOLAR DISORDERA significant amount of research has been conducted to investigate the underlying causes of Bipolar Disorder. The role played by genetics and biological factors does appear to be a significant one. Research has demonstrated that one identical twin can suffer with Bipolar Disorder where as the other identical twin may not. However, they are importantly more likely to suffer with the illness relative to another sibling (Genetics Workgroup 1998). Therefore genetics seem to have a significant impact but it is not the only potential contributory factor. Other psychological and sociological factors have been offered as possible explanations for the development of Bipolar Disorder. These will now be discussed with reference to three key areas, the individual, their family and environmental factors.The psychological perspective would highlight the potential causal factors which relate to the individual sufferer themselves. Factors such as substance ab use and alcoholism have been linked with Bipolar Disorder (Winokur et al 1996). A number of psychological issues could under-pin such behaviour and these need to be intercommunicate if a comprehensive understanding of Bipolar Disorder is to be gained. For example, the individual may not be equipped with sufficient coping skills or an ability to manage stress which in turn leads to their use of alcohol or drugs which then contributes to their Bipolar Disorder. The psychological perspective emphasises the influence of factors relating to the individuals characteristics which cause or contribute to their illness.The second key area which relates to the psychosocial perspective is the family. The interactions between family members during a persons developmental years appears to have a significant impact on the onset of Bipolar Disorder. Research has been conducted which has assessed what sufferers of Bipolar Disorder view as the main causes of their illness. Lish et al (1994) found th at sufferers believe that their illness started in their childhood. The way in which parents act towards a child in forming their behavioural patterns is an important consideration. This is of particular importance when the parents themselves suffer with Bipolar Disorder (Grigoroiu-Serbanescu et al 1989). The child will observe the behaviour of their parents and this in turn will play a significant part in developing their behaviour in given situations. The learning of social skills and the interactions which take place within the family are viewed by those from a psychosocial perspective to be an important consideration in understanding the causes of Bipolar Disorder.As well as family related issues, general environmental factors are also advocated by the psychosocial perspective as a cause of Bipolar Disorder (Pike Plomin 1996). The social environment in which an individual lives and the events which they experience may contribute to the development of their illness. The social s upport which a person has when they are first experiencing a manic or depressive mood can significantly impact the course of the mood and potentially facilitate the development of a more serious problem. Furthermore, the general lifestyle of the individual, and the social settings which this puts them in, will be another influencing factor. If they live or work in an environment which facilitates significant high and low periods then this could facilitate the onset of a psychotic symptom. Therefore, if an individual lives in an environment which encourages alcoholism, provides no real social support and incurs significant episodes of highs and lows, then the environment may lead to them suffering with Bipolar Disorder.Thus far the discussion has demonstrated that those coming from a psychosocial perspective would argue that individual, family and environmental factors all have a part to play in causing, and contributing to, Bipolar Disorder. The empirical evidence, however, for such assertions is somewhat limited and hence the argument exists mainly from a theoretical perspective. It is difficult to conduct experiments which control for all of the potentially confounding variables and because of the relevant ethical considerations involved. Research generally focuses on people with Bipolar Disorder and tries to identify the causes of their illness. Having said this, the relevant research which has taken place involving identical twins would lead one to conclude that psychological and sociological factors do merit consideration when assessing the onset of Bipolar Disorder. The remainder of this discussion will now address the treatment of Bipolar Disorder from a psychosocial perspective. Again the categories of the individual, the family and the environment will be used to body structure the discussion.3.3.3 TREATMENT OF BIPOLAR DISORDERAlthough Bipolar Disorder is a serious illness, it can be successfully treated (Sachs et al 2000). Due to the fact that the tr aditional medication-based approaches have significant side-effects (Vainionpaa et al 1999), and because they are not always fully effective, psychosocial treatments have been proposed. These approaches will now be discussed with reference to individual, family and environmental methods as these were the areas addressed in terms of the causes of Bipolar Disorder.Fundamentally based on psychological principles, therapy has been offered as a possible treatment for Bipolar Disorder. For example, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) has been used to treat mild episodes of depression and post-manic dysphoria (Leahy Beck 1988). This approach aims to foster an improvement in the patients coping skills, self control technique and on their ability to manage stress. Also the patient can be taught useful strategies such as combining the taking of medication with a routine task. In evaluating this approach Satterfield (1999) used an empirical case study to demonstrate that it can enhance the tr eatment of rapid cycling. Therefore, CBT is a possible approach for treating the individual factors associated with Bipolar Disorder.An alternative individual approach comes from the psychodynamic perspective. It focuses on abandonment fears, repressed rage, manic defences and the need for engagement through the testing of limits. Limited evaluations of this approach have been made. Early research indicated that there are some long term benefits (Scott 1963). However, this research only used a small sample and hence the extent to which these findings can be generalised is questionable. Much of the research in this area involves single case studies (Kestenbaum Kron 1987). Therefore this approach is predominantly supported by theory rather than upright scientific research.Therefore therapy based on a psychological perspective has been advocated as a method by which individual factors can be addressed. thusly the Expert Consensus Guideline Series (1996) recommended the use of psycho therapy alongside medication so that a more comprehensive treatment programme can be achieved.Conflict within the family can result from the patients desire for the situation to go back to normal after an episode, their dependency on a family member for medication and because the family become concerned at the first signs of anger or sadness. Such conflicts can be addressed with therapeutic programmes like that which is proposed by Miklowitz Goldstein (1990). Family Focussed Therapy (FFT) involves assessing and educating the family as well as providing training in communication and problem-solving skills. Evaluations of this approach for treating Bipolar Disorder have shown that it significantly reduces relapse rates whilst up(a) communication (Miklowitz et al 2000). A key element of approaches within this field is education. Information and hence improved knowledge can help to enhance the patients illness management skills. Spouses, other family members and care-givers all need t o be involved within this process. Honig et al (1997) found that a psycho-educational family approach can reduce relapse rates, increase social support and significantly improve a familys expression of their emotions. Therefore Family Therapy can be used to help address some of the causes of manic and depressive episodes whilst also improving the familys ability to cope with them if and when they do occur.The third and final area of treatments of Bipolar Disorder from a psychosocial perspective concerns environmental factors. By manipulating the environment, it should be possible to both reduce the number of manic or depressive episodes whilst also reducing the negative consequences of them should they happen. For example, Frank et al (2000) proposed Social Rhythms Training. This aims to stabilise a patients social rhythms, such as sleeping patterns, and their patterns of behaviour. It also aims to identify the factors which disrupt a persons social rhythms. Similarly, Wehr et al (1 998) advocates the creation of an environment which facilitates regular and healthy sleepi

Porter S National Diamond Analysis

Porter S National Diamond Analysis southerly Africa with a population of around 49 million passel is a growing retail trade it owns an advanced substructure backing up comparatively effective dispersion of commodities to rural areas, townships and urbanized centers all across Southern Africa and South Africa. The retail market of South Africa has been predominated by a couple of overseerstore for display case Woolworths, Spar, Pick n Pay and Shoprite all owned by large South African holding companies. South Africa has gone done a quick development and expansion in the food retail vault of heaven after the apartheid ended in the category 1994. (Anderson, 1993)The sales in retail raised by nearly 5% in the year 2009 to attain $72 billion regardless of the strong influence of the recession worldwide. The sale of beverage and food amounted to a worth of $7 billion and that of convenience stores accounted to $ 1.4 billion and it has been a growth driver for the retail sector. The growth in the food retail sector seems to be promising and is judge that the food retail sector leave behind continue to grow in the near future. (Kinsey, 1998)The South African food retail market is turning out to be progressively advanced and is give by both imported and local commodities. It is anticipated that the food retail patience of South Africa generated a total of $73.9 billion worth of revenues in the year 2011, presenting a CAGR or compound annual growth rate of 11.5% in the year 2007 and 2011. (Bamford, 1997)Approximately 90% of the stock of user ready products is home(prenominal)ally sourced. The nearly important development was the growth of super markets that traded a huge amount of all the commodities and especially food related commodities ground on the concept of self-service. The super markets that are placed in uptown shopping malls/ centers, have laid a substantial pressure in terms of price on the domestic merchants by buying right away from producers and totally cutting out the middleman, generally with mettlesomeer turnover and lower margins. (Benson, 1985)It is forecasted that the transaction of the industry would slow down, with an expected compound annual growth rate of 5.8% for the term ranging from the year 2011 2016 and by the year 2016 would leave the food retail sector with a worth of $98.1 billion. (Vink, 2002)TOOLS OF compendium (Porters National Diamond Analysis)Michael Porter in the year 1990 developed the national baseball field model and the intention behind this model was to explain that in the world(prenominal) belligerent situations why a few nations achieve and develop and several others does non succeed. The ability of a nation to succeed and to accomplish continued spherical accomplishment inside a peculiar sector might be explicated by chemical elements apart from the production f feators based on which the hypothesis of and Heckscher-Ohlin and comparative utility are established. (Anderson, 199 3)Michael Porter recognized four characteristics as the sustaining and driving dynamism for the aggressive ordainingness to compete, inotherwords both promoting and hampering the formation of originality. The factors are factor endowments, firm strategy, read conditions, structure and rivalry, related and supporting industries. This tool of analysis deals chance events and giving medication as externally originated factors for the aggressive willingness to compete among countries. (Benson, 1985)The above get word represents the Porters National Diamond Analysis.Factor conditionsIt adverts to woodland and availability of natural resources, technology, factors of production, infrastructure and level of input prices such as diesel, machinery, and labor. These components are inherent for the food retail sector to be profitable and competitive spherically. (Bamford, 1997)It has been found out that in South Africa the factor conditions restrain the contender in the food retail sec tor. The quality and cost of unskilled labor, input price, and administration be related with managing and hiring labor, the cost of skilled labor, the cost of capital and the cost, availability of technology and the quality of infrastructure act as an important reason for this holding back of competition. (Kinsey, 1998)South Africa faces a high- cost as compared to the other economies in the world. This creates difficulties for the food retail market to recognize in the international market. Hence, to be competitory, the food retail industries have to cut down the production costs majorly by utilizing fewer inputs with more effectively. In amplification reducing the cost on transport, capital costs and burn. (Bamford, 1997)Demand conditionsThe composition, growth and size of the inland marketplace have a significant function in creating a sector competitive across the world. firm competition from the local market is immanent and it is only is some cases a sector turns out to be globally competitive if it does have any local competition. (Anderson, 1993)On condition that the rate of economic growth is poorer to the possible rate of growth, the volume of the market in South Africa and the slow rate of growth for food commodities would hamper food retail willingness to compete. Hence, the serious significance of rising demands from local market and it should not be confined to the advancement of some small and limited marketplace and should encourage and support the enterprises and activities of food retail.Opportunities from market are frequently not formulated neat devoid of data and information. The availability, cost and quality of information of the market earnestly have an effect on the competition of various enterprisers in the food retail industries. Devoid of timely and reliable data or information, the development of local market is slow. (Bamford, 1997)Related industriesThe occurrence of seller businesses, which are competitive across the wor ld, for instance transport companies, research institutions, suppliers of packaging material, financial institutions, input industries, and utilities provider like water and electricity preserves the competition in the food retail sector. (Vink, 2002)Enhanced soaking up of market amongst distributors and input suppliers also the raised supremacy by transnational companies might in a negative way impact the competition in the food retail sector. The lack of completion and power of the food retail companies in the industry would lead to raised prices of inputs. The government monitors the competition in the food retail industry and whenever necessary takes look into the level of tariff or may impose the Competition Act. (Benson, 1985)The task of producers is to increase their production efficiency through more efficient employment of inputs and production techniques. The producers task is to raise the efficiency of the production by the employment of more efficient production techni ques and inputs. More alter competition and efficient production is dependent upon the application and accessibility of the modern technology of production. (Vink, 2002)The importance of financial institutions in very important as some small retailers are not provided help from big financial institutions because of lack of collateral and high perceived risk profile. If the food retailers could come up with a substitute to the collateral thus they could avail the services of the financial institutions. Establishment of micro financial and locally based financial institutions will be encouraged. (Kinsey, 1998)Firm strategy, structure and rivalryThis include the consideration which, regularize how food retail industry and firms are shaped, managed and organized, and the quality of inland competition has a substantial impact food retail sector competition. A good environment for competition is the one where by application of effective good business management and skills, competition policy shall be assured. The capabilities of food retailers and the power of the consumers are most essential for the advantage of the competition in the food retail market. The food retail industry turn out to be extremely powerful and large in determining and negotiating the prices of producer both globally and locally. It is essential to form long-standing relationship of swear and form partnership among the retailers in order to add value to the opportunities. (Cotterill, 1986) government attitude and policyThe influence of the government could be either negative or positive, which depends on the operational systems, programs and policies of the government. There is the feeling in the food retail sector that the policies and the programs by the government are not being implemented properly, which adds up to a constraint to the competition in the food retail sector. Perceptions may vary for the existing retailers and the fresh ones but they agree to the fragmentation and inadeq uacy of limited services, accountability, weak governance and poor decisions by the executives and their implementation. (Kinsey, 1998)Thus, Government provides specific attention to improve services at every level. Raising competition is supported by the urgency to keep up the desegregation of the food retail industry in the economy worldwide and is speculated by the capability of the retailers to sell the commodities in the global marketplace. Thus leading to high growth of the economy by raising the access of the market. (Benson, 1985)The actions by government to help in providing opportunities for trade are essential but needs large protection and support from global food retail market, trade and market diplomacy to the global level. (Cotterill, 1986)Role of ChanceIt is small to have an effective strategy for risk management in order to promote the tools of risk management for example, food retail future market and summation protection. Some other element of the this strategy of risk management is system of early warning that contains enough accession to and use of relevant, accurate, free and timely data when needed.Applying various tools of risk management on the price risk would become essential for all food retailers in South Africa. In collaboration with the individual(a) sector the government may launch extended awareness and training program among the retailers so that they could use tools of risk management more frequently. (Cotterill, 1986)The price and market risk is lowered by timely and good information about the food retail market. This would render the industry with the intelligence about the market that is essential to come up with strong business decisions and lower the price and market risk. Currently South Africa has no devoted institution that could function permanently the government with collaboration with private firms could establish such institutes. (Kinsey, 1998)Double diamond modelDeveloped by DCruz and Rugman, the double diam ond model proposes that for an industry to develop competitive in terms of growth, profitability and survival the managers of the food retail industry requires to construct on both foreign and domestic diamonds. (Vink, 2002)In general, the exterior diamond of the double diamond model depicts a global diamond, the size of which is determined in a predictable period. Moreover, the diamond in the interior depicts the domestic demand size of which changes as the competition and size of the country. Between the inner and outer diamond is the diamond, which depicts the competitiveness of a nation decided by both international and domestic benchmarks. Difference amongst the domestic and international diamond depicts multinational or international activities, which comprise of either inbound and outbound FDI or foreign straightaway investment. (Cotterill, 1986)The Nine-factor modelContended by Cho in the year 1994 the nine-factor model indicated that diamond model of Porter has restricted pertinence for the countries that are less developed and hence came up with a new model. (Cotterill, 1986)Contemporary Management IssuesThe food retail industry of South Africa experiences a lot of serious governance, environmental and social challenges or ESG and issues. The significances of not actively readdressing the issues have much importance, particularly with regard to supply chain sustainability and brand longevity. The two management issues that should be taken into consideration before commencing operations in South Africa areCorporate AccountabilityLifting the expectations of a stakeholder and enhancing regulative checks have led to a bigger focusing on corporate function and accountability. Corporate responsibility limits have gone outside the organic laws themselves and are wants to let in business whole chains of value and to integrate wider issues of ESG. Developing understanding of consumer about the issues of the environment has created a pressure on the food r etailers to act more cautiously and responsibly and if they fail to do so, it leads to the damage on the account. And reputation is very essential to sustain in the market. (Bamford, 1997)In South Africa, the corporate accountability is in menace where the trade barriers and bureaucracy might include change magnitude costs and ethical standards. As the companies drives aggressively to expand in South Africa this issue becomes more important to manage by the companies. (Kinsey, 1998)Companies have to consider the ESG reputation in this regulation as they relate to its operations and strategies. The King Report on Governance for South Africa 2009 and the King Code of Governance for South Africa 2009 states that risk, sustainability, performance and strategy are indivisible and hence be reported and managed in n incorporated manner. It also furnishes indivisible about the issues concerning corporate governance, like stakeholder engagement, bill commitments and structures, and enter prise risk management. (Kinsey, 1998)Managing CostsClimate change is expected to have an impact on retailers bottom lines through its contributions to a variety of costs, the most guiding light being carbon taxes, electricity costs, fuel costs and infrastructure costs. (Vink, 2002)Carbon Tax The government of South Africa is searching to create a mechanism based on the market such as putting a price on emission of carbon and escalating carbon tax. Government of South Africa feels that these techniques are a way to internalize the external cost of change in climate and as a motivator for the variegation of the nations mix of force and execution of measures for vitality efficiency would raise investment in cleaner industries and technologies.Implementing carbon tax will significantly affect the food retail industry of South Africa. The condition impact of the carbon tax will be on the operating costs. Hence reducing their profit margin and the food retail industry will have no oth er option rather than increasing the prices. (Anderson, 1993)Electricity Costs The Food retailing sector that uses energy intensively. The need for the energy could be raised due to the warmer conditions because of climate change. Although the warmer climate will lower the cost of heating but the raised cost for refrigeration and modify would cancel the reduction, thus contributing to a high consumption of energy. (Cotterill, 1986)The demand for the electricity will rise as a consequence of warmer persist and thus the price of electricity will rise and they already are rising. In the year 2009-10, there was an increase in the price of electricity by 31% and in the year 2010-11 it was raised by 24.8%. There is an incentive for the food retailers to lower the cost of energy and for most of the retailers the maneuver are resembling from initiatives of cost management. The problem for the food retailers is that as the industry flourishes there will be addition of more companies and s tores which would certainly lead to increase in energy usage. The required investment for the development of renewable sources of energy for the development of electricity could be huge. There can be a huge challenge to dish out awareness among the employees regarding the climate change strategies. (Vink, 2002)Fuel Costs The emissions from the transport are the 2nd biggest source after electricity production of emissions by retailers. The cost of fuel plays a vital role in the food retail sector. The heavy and medium trucks for business purpose are relieved from the tax. The motor manufacturing industry and Government are looking for an understanding emission levels that will be taxable. (Kinsey, 1998)Infrastructure Costs This cost relates to the possible requirements of adaptation because of physical damage to the facilities and infrastructure generate by uttermost events of weather. Operational downtime, rising insurance premiums and repair of damages would lead to raised operat ing costs. (Vink, 2002)Market Entry StrategyConsidering the above tools of analysis and the management issues the following market entry strategy could be enforced to have efficient and effective outcomes.Coming out with a good with success is contingent on product support and strong promotion. In the competitive market of South Africa, it is essential to choose a right distributor or federal agent. Studies have revealed that the successful organizations in South Africa have investigated and researched the marketplace in detail prior to entering the market and searching distributors and agents. When proper contacts are founded then it is advisable to have a firsthand experience by visiting South Africa in person and get more knowledge and cognition of the market. through and through strong marketing of products by advertising and sampling new opportunities could be developed in South Africa. (Anderson, 1993)The term Distributor and Agent in South Africa has a particular meaning. Th e Distributors sell and buy right away from the clients whereas the agent operates based on commission after he/she gets order from the clients. Appointing a doctor agent who is able to provide the coverage of the whole country either by network of branch office or one single office. The agent must be capable of handling the required rail and port charges, financial arrangements, warehousing, custom clearance and documentation. (Bamford, 1997)Thus after appointing an agent or a distributor the firm shall look into the management issues discussed above before commencing the operation in full scale and keep in view the various taxes and costs that could be enforced at the time of commencement or during the production. Advertising on mass scale through whichever way possible like internet, newspapers, magazines and receiving set could help in getting recognition among the public. Also coming out with fresh products with low cost and of high quality will certainly entice more custome rs. (Cotterill, 1986)A good market entry strategy is very essential for an organization both in short run and long run. If the organization is able to attract a huge customer base in short run even though it involves cost of marketing, it will lead to high revenues and more profits. Also considering the social and environmental responsibilities. (Anderson, 1993)

Communication An Important Tool English Language Essay

dialogue An Important Tool English Language EssayCommunication is a rattling important beam of light in a kind-hearted live. It is an essential requirement in this world to survive. We ignore look back in the times of ignorance when no language was developed even than colloquy existed in form of sign language and opposite forms. It is impossible for any pedagogicsal institute, organization or interior(prenominal) life to exist without it.It is more than just speaking. An fundamental interaction academic session of speaking results in bringing out meaning to any words or actions. Communication is usually considered to be restricted to language and words but in reality eubstance language and action play an important role in perception of the message in communion (Alder, 1996).Similarly it is non just now depended on the sender to depict the meaning of any dialogue, the manslayer plays a study role in the out come of the converse. The message send by the sender may n ot be interpreted the like office it was intended. thus conference or elicition goes a great focus towards determining how the thoughtfulnesss are interpreted.Flaw in communication or incomplete communication may affect the purpose of the communication and can result in damaging the consequences. Karl Popper said about this issue, it is impossible to speak in much(prenominal) a carriage that you cannot be misunderstood. Thus effective communication is important in every walk of life professional, personalised or social. Not everyone is able to effectively express themselves and this is where the importance of communication skills can be truly understood.The communication make for includes the following components sender, message, encoding, receiver, decoding and feedback. There are different sticks which describe the basic process of communication. These communication models serve to clarify the nature of communication, to provide a guide for research, and to offer a w ay of life of displaying research findings (Narula, 2006). Such models are a tool by which researchers, practitioners, and pupils can demonstrate their ideas about what they believe to be the most essential features of communication.The Transmission Model of Communication is a highly acclaimed model of communication developed by Shannon and Weaver (1949). It is a model of communication which reduces message to a process that transmits information. The model includes five elements a source of information, the transmitter, a channel, receiver and a destination where the message arrives.According to Daniel Chandler(2007) this model is not the best example for communication as it does not include a two way communication rather is based only on getting the message across to the receiver which can result in technical problem such as uncertainty of how accurately has the message been transmitted. Another problem which can be faced in this model of communication is the semantic error that means how precisely the meaning of the message is covered. Above all the problem of effectiveness is really important the sender would not be able to confirm that how effectively the message has affected the behavior of the receiver.This model is definitely one of the simplest models of communication but it carries around the major issue of one way model. One way communication brings uncertainty to the sender of the purpose of the communication be served or destroyed. The whole concept of communication revolves around the feedback which is a nonpartizan communication model.If we try out this model in a class room scenario, it is impossible for a instructor to give the lecture to the scholarly persons without knowing that whether her message has been understood by the students or not. She might even face the transmission error considering that the students are unable to understand her language. Chances of semantic error are very much possible in a classroom session as the teach er might be explaining to her level best but the students might not be prcising it as accurately as the teacher is thinking. Effectiveness of the lecture is surely doubtful without any feedback. This model is a complete failure especially in education sector because interaction surrounded by the teacher and student is the key factor.Derivative Models of the Communication Process is another model of communication it is withal referred as two-way flow or the gatekeeper model (Katz, 1957). This model was the main focus of mass communication as there are limitation in this model of communication to decide which message should reach out to the receivers and how should they depict the message. In news rooms and media networks journalists have the power to prevent the outflow of the message it is also known as gateway as the message or news goes through a censor (Lorimer, Scannell, 2004).This model of communication is also widely being apply in all forms of communication. Whether it is personal, social or educational communication we often observe this model being practiced by our teachers. A proofreader might censor the information she is not well prepared to deliver or if her own concepts are vague. This would limit the students with less information.Although this model of communication is majorly used by mass communication but our interpersonal communication has also adapted its attributes. The educational sector is dependant on the communication theories. It is often notice that the students are not enjoying the liberty to think out of the box or to explore new things as the lecturers have restricted their lectures to what they decide is important for the students to break in a way they act as the gatekeepers in the process of communication.Third model of communication is the New Model of Communication Process which includes feedback which may be delayed but is regarded as an interactive session of communication. altogether the new models of the modern wor ld of communication are following two-way communication methods (Narula, 2008).Two-way communication enables the sender to confirm that the receiver has received the message. Also it suffices the sender to confirm that the receiver has understood the message clearly. It allows the receiver to share his feeling about the message he has received. Also it allows the receiver to question the sender and change the message. If we observe this in an educational setup, we might pronounce that this is the most equal model of communication. In modern world this model of communication is being used every where regardless of its use in any organization or any inter personal communication session. Also now mostly all forms of mass communication are also practicing two-way communication including scar media, electronic media, radio and online journalism.The educational system is observing it in many different ways. The interactive class room session allows the students to question and share t heir familiarity with the teachers and other students of the class. The students are disposed in class take home assignments which are forms of student response for the teacher as she would get feedback of the understanding of the student regarding lecture executed to them. Projects and presentation further assists the examiner that how far the student has understood the concepts and how good is he in implementing the knowledge served to him by the lecturer. Teacher-student inter personal relationship is also a form of two way communication to understand the subject in depth.Written communication involves any type of interaction that makes use of the written word. It is one of the two main types of communication, along with oral/spoken communication. Written communication is the foremost communication required and used in education. All the books and reference material are in form of written communication. The assignments submitted are in written form and also the presentations an d most projects are given using written communication.The basis of communication is the interaction between people. Verbal communication is one way for people to communicate face-to-face. Some of the key components of verbal communication are sound, words, speaking, and language.Verbal communication is also the key for the teachers to make the understanding clear for the students of any concept. Written material provided to them would not help them alone. any guidance regarding their subject is based on verbal communication (Hulme, 2002).Nonverbal communicationis usually understood as the process ofcommunicationthrough move and receivingwordlessmessages. i.e., language is not the only source of communication, there are other means also. Messages can be communicated throughgesturesand touch, byfacial expressionandeye contact. Meaning can also be communicated through object orartifacts. Numerous examples are observed in a classroom session of non-verbal communication (Robert, 2010) . It is a very important consideration when marking the presentations. Teachers have separate marks allocated to the body language, dressing and eye contact.A direct communication where all the participants of the communication are physically present at a time is known as Synchronous communication. A telephone call or boards of directors meeting are good examples of synchronous communication. In a class room it helps the students to have a better understanding to get instant feedback from the teacher on any topic, which may interrupt his understanding for the entire lecture if not cleared at that point.In asynchronous communication all the participants of the communication may not be available at the same time. Instead of telephone if we take the example of electronic mails, the receiver may not check the email sort out at that point, blogs are also a good example of asynchronous communication. In an educational setup students are sent informative emails which help them ascertain a better understanding of the lesson.Electronic communication involves use of the digital technology in the communication system. In modern times computers and meshing has made education very much digital. The students are highly depended on mass media for seeking help in the learning (Coffield, 2002).Visual communication is the communicationthrough visual aid and is explained as the transfer of ideas and information in a way which can be looked upon and read as well including diagrams, signs, drawings, electronic sources. Visual displays of ideas have better changes of informing, education and persuading the audiences. Presentations given by the lecturers and other diagrams are the basic use of visual communication in a classroom. kinesthetic communication is very common in educational systems. Few students can just learn by listening and reading. They need to do it. These types of students learn only while they perform it. They might learn better if they type their notes or do a practical to understand the concept behind a theory. All these forms of communication come with barriers. The effectiveness of the communication is relative provided it does not face any barriers in communication process. Physical barrier can be observed in case the teacher or a student is unreachable. The lecture a student would miss due to his absence might be deemed as barrier of communication. Contextual barrier may be observed in a communication of a classroom session. The students might not take the right reference of the lecture and may misinterpret the information provided to them. Technical skills are a huge problem in case a student is not well aware of internet usage his ability to gain from some major information will be restricted. Technical errors may occur due to designing faults observed in the machinery.Cultural differences are also a common barrier of communication observed in a classroom of student from different backgrounds. This may cause problems of language w hich will definitely interrupt the smooth flow of lectures as the student who does not understand what is being delivered by the teacher will definitely not benefit from the information provided(Claire, 2008).Behavior is very important when it comes to education. The three important elements of any educational system is language, behavior and the programming of how we execute the information the students get (Dean, 2008). Neuro-Linguistic Programming includes neurology, language and programming which are the three key factors of a human experience. The system in which our body functions is known as neurological system. The interface and communication with other individuals is through language (Widdowson, 2001). The reproduction of the world we create is the programming done by us. termination the above statement Neuro-Linguistic Programming is the primary connection between mind and language with how their relationship with each other affects human body and behavior.Epistemology ad dresses multiple levels gnarled in being a human being. Neuro-Linguistic Programming is a very realistic school of thought. It includes the development of behavioral mechanism and flexibility. It is a multi- dimensional process. natural language processing is also involved in premeditated thinking and is considered a cognitive and mental procedure behind human behavior. It also provides utensils and abilities for the progress of an individuals excellence. At the same time it also provides a system of sanctioning beliefs and presupposition about who human beings are in real what is the procedure of change and what is communication (Knight, 1999).On the other hand NLP also consists of agenda, exploring individuality and doing self analysis to rediscover one self. It provides the framework for better perception and relation to the spirituality of a human experience that goes beyond their status as a member to the family, community and to this world. NLP is about the wisdom and vision of an individual with excellence. Personalized learning is a public educational model which is exclusive to cater to the interests and need of each student individually. It can be a classroom-based or non-class-room based mythologyAccording to Tabard (2010) the up-to-the-minute educational researcher found out that students learn most successfully with parental involvement, less number of pupils in each class, one-on-one interaction between student and teacher (Dean, 2006). Students feel a connection between them and their teacher which also brings a different level of confidence in the pupil. It is the most emotive way of teaching.Electronic learning is the modern way of learning. It includes the digital learning system using computer, internet, DVD, projector presentations and much more. It is much preferable by the students of this generation. With the way the electronic learning is increasing personal learning is losing its importance (Jeffrey, Beasley, Miller, 2008). In futur e we might observe that the learning is only electronic based. It has already started to gain the predilection over the personalized form of learning (Sandars, 2006).Communication is very important for any educational center as they go hand in hand. A good combination of the communication method would help the students to benefit from all forms of communications contemporary as well as traditional. It is very essential to equalizer the forms of communication. The education system needs to develop the most accurate network between students and teachers so that their behavior, language, learning and most of all execution of their learning can improve.

Summary and Analysis of The Franklins Tale Essay examples -- Canterbu

Summary and Analysis of The Franklins Tale (The Canterbury Tales)Prologue to the Franklins TaleThe Franklin praises the Squire for his eloquence, parcel outing his youth. He tells the Squire that he has no match among the company and that he wishes that his own son were as commendable as the Squire. The Host suggests that the Franklin tell the next tale. The Franklin begins by apologizing in advance for his rough voice communication and lack of education. The Franklins TaleThe Franklins Tale begins with the courtship of the Breton knight Arviragus and Dorigen, who come to be married happily. Their marriage is one of equality, in which neither of the two is master or servant. However, soon after they marry Arviragus is sent away to Britain to work for two years. Dorigen wept for his absence, despite the letters that he sent habitation to her. Her friends would often take her on walks where they would pass the cliffs overlooking the ocean and watch ships enter the port, hoping that one of them would bring home her husband. However, she was distressed by the rocks that were near the shore. She feared that whatever ship brought her husband home would crash on these rocks and sink. These friends would also have garden parties in which they would invite singers and squires to dance. adept of these squires, Aurelius, had been in love with her ever since she arrived in Brittany. Eventually he stated his love for her. She agrees that she would be his lover if he would find a way to clear the rocks that endangered incoming ships. Aurelius lamented this condition, thinking that such a task would be impossible. His brother suggested that Aurelius meet a student of law at Orleans who was versed in the sciences of illusion. Aurelius made a jour... ...solved Aurelius of his debt, while Aurelius and Arviragus gave up something that legitimately mattered. One could argue that Arviragus behaved most nobly because he risked his reputation and gave up what was redressfully his, yet for Arviragus there may not have been another reasonable excerptionthe other solution that Dorigen considers is suicide. And Aurelius made what was perhaps the largest sacrifice, for he gave up what he desired most, yet what he gave up he had no legitimate right to have. A final option is that Dorigen was the one who behaved most nobly throughout the course of the story. She sacrificed her honor for the safety of her husband and was honest to both Aurelius and Arviragus. However, this does not consider the inherent foolishness of her initial promise and the fact that her behavior after Aurelius fulfilled this promise was highly constrained.

Military Leaders in Developing Countries Essay -- Military Politics Ar

Military Leaders in Developing CountriesThe role of the soldiers in any country is one and only(a) of prestige. Unless having been through it personally, one could not imagine willingly subjecting oneself to the rigorous training received by so legion(predicate) young men and women today. The role played by the soldiery is always to protect, defend, and assist its country in both(prenominal) war and peacetime, but in maturation nations there are quite different roles as well. To be a leader in the armed forces, one must be strong both physically and mentally, as well as having a certain charisma, or skill with people. This is true because in order to lead, one must appeal to those he or she is leading. Not only does a developing country have armed forces for defense, but on occasion, the leaders of third population militaries use them for the abolish of their own government. Currently serving as a soldier(reservist), I can identify with the saying, spilling blood in the mud , as we are trained, contracted, and sworn to do so on command, but if ever asked to help plan or execute an act against our government, I would be appalled. This is exactly what several third world country military officers have done. Momar Quadaffi was a Lieutenant in the Libyan military and with the help of some other lower ranking officers, he successfully staged a revolution. Which is not at all bad because he is so popular he can drive around in his Volkswagen exchangeable without any type of security but could you imagine Bill Clinton riding a bike down Pennsylvania Avenue without the secret service on for the ride ( I apologize if I have just created a bad mental image)? The point is, where on earth could a group of officers secretly join together and overthrow the government, oth... ...itself. One could make several connections between Castros military background and government. In conclusion, there are many ideals and virtues that are instilled when one goes through form al military training, and these involve leadership, charisma, and a fair sense of judgment. All of these virtues can be shown in several developing nations leaders as they themselves have gone through rigorous physical and mental training in order to help them better defend their country and its way of life. though each leader may differ in terms of race, color, creed, or culture, their primary objective and ideologies are quite similar. While each leader has his or her countrys best interest at heart when making policies and decisions that have long-standing ramifications, one can be assured that these leaders and their policies are based upon their firm military training.